The Postmodern: Bricolage & Intertextuality

by Ece Oney

The idea of the Postmodern condition is associated with Jean François Lyotard. He was born in 1924 in Versailles, France. He was a French Philosopher and literary theorist. In the 1970's he was hired by the Canadian government to study society. He wrote the La condition postmoderne: Rapport sur le savoir ( The Postmodern Condition: A report on knowledge). He stated that we are now aware of differences, diversity, beliefs and desires, and the incompatibility of our aspirations. He talks about how reason and imagination work differently.

Malcolm Barnard explains the differences between Modernity & Postmodernity. Modernity was considered the era of the industrial revolution, when people's lives were influenced by machinery and mass production.

Postmodernity, was the era after modernism, when excess and individualization began. Modernity conceived of the object in terms of production, postmodernity conceives of it in terms of consumption. There wasn’t one set meaning to an object or a garment anymore. Both postmodernity and its fashion were based on new and different ideas. This created desire for new things and for the latest model. So there was a cycle of desire for endless difference. Now in most cases our needs are met and the mystical value of some thing is more important than the use value.

The postmodern era emphasizes difference so there is no metanarrative, meaning no real right or wrong. This creates a lot of subjective confusion and creates what is known as the "postmodern crisis of meaning" in which people are overwhelmed by options and no longer know what to do with their lives.

Modern mass production created excess that resulted in the current postmodernity of style. With excess production of clothing, people combined the variety of forms.

Combining and assembling things to form something new is called bricolage. The idea of adaptability is also postmodern.

Pastiche is a playful reference to a master work. Pastiche happens when a design directly references another, as in YSL's reference to artist Mondrian's work below. Bricolage, as described above and seen below right, involves combing sometimes anonymous things that have already been used, and also giving them new purposes and meanings. Bricolage is able to create new meaning from the old while pastiche is just referencing the old for what it means.

With excess there is also cultural referencing between signs. It is similar to pastiche but it involves more than one media and is called intertextuality. With excess signs in media, designers and artists can play with the signs that only mean something within media. This is the practice of a dj, mixing samples that represent the songs themselves without having to play the whole track.

Signs are meaningless if there are no other ones to compare them with. Intertextuality is relating something to a well known reference from the past. For example Madonna wearing a crucifix doesn’t show her Christian nature but is a rebellious, misappropriation of something with a traditional significance.

Ambiguity is also a part of postmodernism in that the excess of similar forms creates confusion.

Postmodernity also plays with established structures. Designers like John Galliano and Alexander McQueen, are most known for transforming the runway show. The theatrical way of presenting their garments gives them added value, with a change in context the garment gains a different feel to it.

Since postmodernism no longer has a single authority, the media becomes the only thing that can legitimize fashion.

A Tale of Inscription Fashion Statements

There are a lot of ideologies that can be related to fashion. Is what a designer showing a pure aesthetic or a statement with a deeper meaning? Fashion is a very ambiguous subject. One thing can be related to others really easily. For example in the time of the feminist rebellion, women dressed more plain and masculine. The author associates the body and power with fashion and is concerned with eras of colonialism in which mostly women were subject to fashion changes.

Above an Anti-American campaign and on the right an Hermes campaign that featured an Indian women in Western clothing. Below "The Hampton Project" by Carrie Mae Weems showed former slaves who were dressed in more formal clothing as part of a school training.

At any specific historical time, fashion is located in a discourse on health, beauty and sexuality, the nation and the economy and location. In Freuds Interpretations of Dreams the techniques he uses to analyse the dreams can be related to fashion. First of all symbolic; a relic from a older indentity, secondly, decoding; the signs translated in to meaning and third, deciphering. There is however no fixed meaning to fashion. Any person, any object, any relationship can mean something totally different. While modernism valued the essential, the real, the substantial over the ephemeral, the imaginary, the formal, postmodernism has been engaged in questioning these divisions, and these transcendental positions.

Japanese teens as producers of street fashion

This article talks about the subculture of Japanese teenagers ( mostly girls) from districts of Tokyo, Harajuku and Shibuya. In this subculture the creators of fashion is not the well-known designer but the teenagers themselves. Even though there are Japan inspirations in fashion such as Yohji Yamamoto, Comme des Garçons and Kenzo, Japanese street fashion is led by these unique postmodern styled teenagers.

These teenagers mix and maches different patterns, fabrics and accessories together and create an uncommon look. They wanted to make a statement and show that they are different than the stereotypical Japanese person and they are not like their parents who wear more conservative and cultural clothing.

They have different catagories within the culture for example the Kogal which were young girls wearing clothes that look like school uniforms. And even within this there were created subcultures called Ganguro (bleached haired, tanned school girls), Amazoness, Yamamba etc. and even though they look really similar the members of the groups were able to identify themselves from the others. There were also groups who were inspired by mangas, Japanese cartoons which wore more costume like clothes and call this CosPlay (costume play) also there were another group called gothic lollitas.

These girls don’t look up to celebrities, their fashion icons are themselves. Mostly it is not a nice job to work in a department store, but in Tokyo it’s different it is prestigious to work Shibuya 109 because it means you are fashionable. The sales girls in this stores are the trendsetters within their society. Even in the magazines you cant see the celebrities but there are photos of ordinary people from their groups.

It was better to explore a store, a new designer then go to a well known brand. Even the designers they used to shop become famous they lose interest. The garments they buy should be unique so stores create limited numbers. These girls doesn’t spend much money on what they buy because they have to keep up with the newest fashion trends which changes in 2 or 3 weeks. We can see that fashion is not always controlled by the famous designers but there are people who create their own fashion and trends.

Postmodern clothing

Bernard Wilhelm references the Japanese war flag

Jean Charles de Castelbajac re-contextualizes American culture

Postmodern images

David LaChapelle creates absurd photos that suggest the excess of postmodernity and the crisis of meaning

Juergen Teller for Marc Jacobs emphasize celebrities, in postmodernity there is no single authority so media and fame become a form of legitimization

Postmodern brands

Jeremy Scott uses bricolage, combing elements of Mickey Mouse with the American dollar bill and his own portrait to create new meaning

Deconstructing Bally

The Swiss shoe manufacturer Bally has built associations with design and the jet set. The brand built recognition through its illustrated campaigns which were used through the 1980's. The recent strategy by Scott Fellows was looking back to the historic brand essence to inspire the brand direction.

Bally began Carl Bally shoe manufacturing in the 1850’s. They supply military shoes during WWI. In 1942 they begin the Bally shoes museum, the largest to this day. 1951 Bally begins luxury production with the “Scribe” shoe after the hotel in Paris. The flagship in Zurich is re-launched in the 1960’s. In 1976, the add ready to wear and accessories.

Most of Bally's illustrations were created by Bernard Villemot, also of Air France.

Below the illustrated image was inspiration for the shot by Toby Pond in 2003

The photographs below were shot in part in Brasilia in 1980.

2007

The brand has gained increased contemporary recognition of its travel and luxury associations. It communicates these values and a European sensibility that is opposed by American and Asian brands at accessible prices. The brand rests on quality of shoe construction as the fundamental essence and the accessories and clothing are added value.

F 2005

2009

Brand Strategy

by Stephanie Wu

The Burberry Business Model: Creating an International Luxury Fashion Brand

Creating an International luxury brand starts with the right decisions made by those who manage the company. Thomas Burberry, who sold men’s outerwear in England, founded Burberry in 1856. The break through for the company was upon the development of “gabardine” fabrics which resisted tearing and was weatherproof as well as breathable. Associated with the military because of the material, the “trench coat” was developed and Burberry evolved into a retail and wholesale business. Working its way through, the first store in London opened in 1891 gradually expanding then in to the foreign market until we now know as the present day ‘Burberry’.

Decline and Survival
With that being said, Burberry entered a state of shock in 1997 as their annual profits dropped. Their problems read: heavy reliance upon a small base of core products company-owned retail network based in non-strategic locations inconsistent Burberry products sold in wide range of retail environments of varying quality inconsistencies in price, design, quality control across markets under-investment (refusing to make low-risk investments but projects may not perform as expected resulting in bankruptcy) in corporate organization in relation to marketing, merchandising, product development and other support functions. A new appointed chief executive, Rose Marie Bravo, managed to change Burberry for the better and re organized it.

Strategically showing the mix of Burberry consumers by Mario Testino 2001

Brand Management

The Management team understanding the importance of brand strategy takes the original name “Burberry’s” and changes it to “Burberry”. Along with that change, they created a new brand logo as well as a contemporary packaging. In order for them to slightly change the perceptions of Burberry, they, incorporating with that strategy, used models such as Kate moss and renowned fashion photographers to promote their British theme in advertisements. They also repositioned their locations as a flagship store (retailers designed to serve mainstream customers placing them in upscale areas) near Gucci, Versace, Prada, Chanel, YSL, and Bulgari on New Bond Street in London as an act of attracting international fashion press and other media attention.

Product Design and Sourcing

Christopher Bailey, whom had extensive knowledge of fashion houses such as Gucci and Donna Karan launched Burberry Prorsum with a design team where Burberry would be able to compete in high fashion with its counterparts. They also reduced its reliance on licensees for product design and manufacture.

The Burberry old garde and the new together in 2002 by Mario Testino

Defining the Burberry Business Model

Burberry has established a multi-level brand strategy:

Burberry Prorsum, which is the couture fashion range that merely, serves to attract mass media. Quantities are limited and are exclusive for well-off customers. The range is in prestigious departments such as Barneys in New York and Harvey Nichols in London. Burberry London Line is the prête-à-porté range in collections of spring/summer and autumn/winter both men and women’s wear. Spanish and Japanese have two separate lines from Burberry due to the fact that Burberry has established a relationship with them in the past. Both the Spanish and Japanese market has the more tailored Burberry London range for strong classical elements. The Thomas Burberry range in Spain that is targeted at a younger age range from 15-25 years. The Burberry Blue and Burberry Black brands sold only in Japan include the former a casual collection and the latter tailored clothing with sportswear. Burberry along with clothes produce Fragrance, accessories, and children’s wear.

Retail Distribution

Burberry has retail chain stores in important locations in London, New York, Barcelona, and Tokyo with full stocks of Burberry prorsum and Burberry London ranges with accessory collections.

Department stores creates a cost-efficient manner in order to avoid risks and costs with operating a large number of company owned stores. Outlets sell surplus stock at retail stores and wholesale.

Burberry's ads no longer feature the older generation by 2008 above and 2009 below

Brand strategy is combined with brand positioning to increase brand equity or value in both the eyes of the consumer and the bottom line.

International Luxury Goods Merchant: Arthur Cooke

Responsible for Henry Cotton’s and Linen company Frette, for image merchandising, product development, store visuals, and advertising)

“Our plan is to make the brands collective images synonymous with fashion and luxury”

Dawn Mello of Bergdorf Goodman discovered Cooke. He worked at Bergdorf and liked to choose accessories and shaped looks for seasons. Eventually in a few years working at Bergdorf, he was promoted to vice president and eventually came to his position at Henry Cotton’s and Frette in which he oversees showrooms for the sportswear company.

Frette travel

Fashion’s Foremost Empire Builder: Bernard Arnault

Chairman of LVMH- Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton

“The strongest factor in luxury brand building is the boutique.”

Arnault resurrected the Dior label as one of the bankrupt companies in Bossac 1984. He owns over fifty luxury brands including Dior and Fendi. He believes that the boutique is where the brand is alive.

Brand Builder for Famous Names: Jean-Marc Loubier

CEO of Escada

For 16 years, he worked at LVMH under Arnault. He revolutionized the Louis Vuitton image by using the company’s old history to turn what lacked freshness into a fashion and innovative product with the signature monogramming. 


Fashion and Media Matchmakers: Karine and Ariel Ohana

Managing Partners in Ohana & Co., a boutique mergers-and-acquisitions firms. The Brother and sister formed their company in 1994 that focused on merging technology, and luxury. They work to bring smaller companies together with larger enterprises that have the nessessary alignment of finaltion assets for fashion. An example as such is how Emanuel Ungaro became part of Ferragamo.

Repositioner of Global Brand: Scott Fellows

Former Creative Director of Bally

“We will combine traditional Swiss precision and old-world craftsmanship with modern shapes and designs.”

Has a business degree from Harvard and had attempted to steer Ferragamo, Gucci, Prada, and Fendi however, settled with Bally with its alpine-style roots. He refocused the company’s strategy and downsized the retail network of Bally due to its problematic turn around and made it successful in changing the image but also to retained the Swiss feel.

Functions & Brands

by Andrea Gutierrez Coello de Portugal

From Malcom Barnard, Fahion as Communication, "Functions": This essay focuses on what fashion and clothing might be for, on the different functions or jobs that fashion and clothing might have. Why people adorn their bodies and why they wear and have worn clothes. If we separate the material functions (those connected to protection and modesty) of fashion and dress from their cultural functions (are to do with communication) we see that these change from culture to culture and communicate a different cultural identity. Clothes have a role in the production and reproduction of society. Clothing will represent people’s positions of power and authority within a society.

Protection

Clothing is used to make life easier, to proclaim or disguise our identity and to attract sexual attention. It is also used as a way of protection, modesty and attraction and its major function is communication. Clothing, not fashion, can be a physical need for protection and shelter. It protects the body from the cold, the heat, sports, accidents, psychological or physical dangers... These human needs concerning to clothing change from culture to culture, from different counties even in the same culture depending on the needs of each individual person.

Vivienne Westwood, 1993

Modesty and Concealment

Modesty means that certain parts of the body are indecent and shameful and should be covered, but once again this can change from culture to culture since the connection between clothing and modesty changes in every society and has its own perception of modest dress, behavior, modesty or shame and between religions. The functions of clothing could also be thought of for distinguishing masculine from feminine. Some clothing have the function of camouflage, not only in military dress or uniforms. Some clothing changes parts of the body to camouflage them and others just not to get attention on themselves. In some cases fashion is even used to fit in with the people around one.

Thierry Mugler, 1967

Immodesty and Attraction

Fashion can also be used for the opposite, and wearing clothes is a motivation to immodesty and exhibitionism. Some people think that clothes should attract attention to the body. Women's dress is thought for the seduction principal while men dress is thought for the hierarchical principle. Women's clothes are used to make the person wearing them more attractiveness while men’s clothes are intended to display and enhance social status like is has been seen in history and prehistory. Fashion also changes the ways how we differentiate the different parts of the female body at different times of history. These change at the same time as fashion does. A lot of fashion and clothing is used to display the sexual or social attractiveness of both men and women, but these also vary from culture to culture.

Communication

The unifying function of fashion and clothing is used to communicate the membership of a cultural group. Fashion, dress and clothing have communicative functions. Clothing or dress can be used to reinforce someone's mood. people buy new clothes to feel better, since they make them feel unique or just by wearing something new. They can also feel pleasure fore displaying themselves or seeing that from others. Clothes can show someone's uniqueness by them being old, new or a mixture of both. these can be explained as as syntagmatic and paradimatic differences.

Other Factors

-Clothing and fashion is often used to indicate social worth or status. These can come from occupation, family, sex, gender age or race. Clothing is used to differentiate male from female, the difference between religious classes and the memberships of different families.

-The different types of status define how people in those positions have to behave. Also the way someone dresses can make the interaction between people easier. And represent their social role.

-Economic status is the positioning a economy. Clothing may indicate the position of people in a job. White collar means they wear suits for their jobs and blue collar means manual labour.

-Fashion and clothing are connected to the workings of power. People use clothes to show their social role in different social status.

-Macro-religious: Clothes in this case represent believe and strength of believe. Worn sometimes or always certain clothes represent the membership of certain religions and indicate the strength of the believe.

-Social Rituals : Clothing is used to indicate the beginning and the end of rituals. Like for example a weeding or a funeral. People in there cases wear certain clothes. These clothes vary from each ritual, culture or religion.

-Recreation : Fashion is also used in recreation to show the different trends in different activities or sports.

Conclusion

Material functions like modesty, protection and attraction were used to explain the function of fashion and clothing. These vary from culture to culture and from one period in time to another. It has been explained how things are communicated by fashion and clothing as a cultural phenomena.

Fashion & Graphics by Tamsin Blanchard

In a label money, sex appeal, aspiration and status is represented. The label has become very important and why the garment has been sold in the first place. Packaging and presentation is used more and more between brands rather than the product itself. The brand image attracts a certain consumer.

Strong brands are consistent through time and have clear associations as in YSL above a monogram that has come to represent French tailoring, luxury and sexuality. Gloria Vanderbilt below represents a short lived brand that utilized the power of name alone.

The graphic designers have taken a very important role in this since they are responsible of the look of the label and the art direction of the campaign. Peter Saville was one of the pioneers in fashion graphics for the 1980’s look book of Yoshi Yamamoto.

Now in some cases the presentation is more important than the actual design and what makes one garment cost a certain amount of money.

The designer label represents the spirit and integrity, the philosophy and the character of the line to the costumer, so this is why a well designed label is so important. The graphic identity is a reflection of what a product wants to express and reflect and it is the language between the designers and the consumer. The graphic identity will be applied to everything that the brand uses.

Graphic designers have brought a new vision to fashion and a different perspective. A well designed and well known logo is the most important factor for a fashion house to succeed. Tyler Brulee's creation of Stella McCartney below represents a name in lights effect that signifies her emanating family fame.

Strong brand equity results in powerful associations to the point of color ownership.

While the Paul Smith logo is unique with a signature, the background resembles both the art work of Bridget Riley and Rem Koolhaas' proposal for the EU flag.

Weak brand equity happens when a form is easily confused with other meanings.